Introduction
Hybrid warfare is not a new invention, but the term has gained prominence in the 21st century to describe the evolving way states and non-state actors wage conflict. Unlike traditional war, which relies on overt military confrontation, hybrid warfare combines multiple tools—military and non-military, legal and illegal, visible and covert—to destabilise adversaries without necessarily provoking a formal declaration of war.
Defining Hybrid Warfare
At its core, hybrid warfare refers to the integration of conventional military force with irregular tactics and non-military means. These can include disinformation campaigns, cyberattacks, economic coercion, sabotage, and the use of proxies. The goal is to achieve strategic objectives while operating in the “grey zone” below the threshold of open war. The ambiguity is deliberate: it confuses opponents, slows their response, and prevents unified retaliation.
Historical Roots
Though often associated with Russia’s actions in Ukraine, hybrid methods stretch back much further. Cold War intelligence operations, colonial insurgencies, and the use of propaganda all prefigure today’s hybrid strategies. What has changed is the speed and reach enabled by global connectivity, digital platforms, and interdependent economies, which make societies far more vulnerable to disruption without physical force.
Core Components
Hybrid warfare is multidimensional. Its main components include:
- Information operations: spreading disinformation, amplifying social divisions, undermining trust in institutions.
- Cyber operations: hacking infrastructure, stealing sensitive data, disrupting critical services.
- Economic pressure: leveraging energy supplies, sanctions-busting, and corrupt financial networks.
- Political subversion: covert financing of parties, cultivating elites, and manipulating democratic processes.
- Military pressure: positioning troops, conducting snap exercises, or supporting proxy forces—all calibrated to intimidate without triggering Article 5-level responses.
The Appeal for Adversaries
Hybrid warfare appeals to powers like Russia and, increasingly, China because it plays to asymmetry. It allows weaker or revisionist states to punch above their weight against militarily stronger opponents such as NATO. By forcing democracies to constantly respond to diffuse, low-level threats, hybrid warfare erodes political will and public confidence.
Why It Matters for Europe
For Europe, hybrid warfare is not abstract theory but lived reality. From cyberattacks on hospitals and electoral commissions, to energy blackmail, to coordinated disinformation campaigns, the continent is already a battlefield. Understanding hybrid warfare is essential for recognising that security today is not just about tanks and jets, but about the resilience of societies, institutions, and infrastructures against manipulation and disruption.
